[Cross Cultural Communications Series] The Final Word

This is the final part in a series of six articles by Dr Ian Lawrence and is based on the work he did on his paper The Sport and Cross-Cultural Communication: Applications to and from Professional Soccer in the English Premier League"

With globalization, countries are experiencing increasing diversity in the composition of their population; this is also clearly identified within the multi-cultural composition of most Premiership teams. 

Modern society is bringing together more people who speak different languages, practice different religions, hold different political views, have vastly different amounts of wealth or poverty, practice different sexual orientations, and more. Yet, the fact of the matter is that all individuals that are part of this international system are human, and in order to increase understanding amongst these different peoples, we must pay more attention to our similarities. 

Individual differences will lead to conflict at times, but we can avoid many disputes by understanding other cultures, which then explains different motivations, intentions and perceptual frameworks. Improving cultural relations are not going to solve the world’s problems, but they can certainly aid in better relations between international groups.

It is imperative that we enhance international understanding firstly at a local level, beginning with the individual. Larger units and systems will continue to have difficulties in communicating effectively if the individuals that inhabit these groups are ignorant of cultural differences within the system. Person to person exchanges can be used as excellent channels of improving cross-cultural communication. Every person has distinct cultural values, which are not only based on their nationalities, but also on their race, family heritage, religion, socio-economic background, and political views and financial situation, to name a few. 

All of these components contribute to a person’s culture, none of which is isolated from another. Somehow, all of these factors contribute to one’s perceptions and motivations, and some contribute more heavily than others. Without communicating with people who come from these varying cultural backgrounds, managers cannot expect to understand why their belief systems might differ. For that reason, it is essential that they make use of the most effective channels of cross-cultural communication.

The notion that sport can be used or abused cannot be overemphasized, as a plethora of examples exist to support both arguments. The language of sport that all people can share is relative, considering these variations of cultural values that shape sporting activities. Many aspects of soccer, such as the rules of the game, are standardized all over the world, but as I have shown, there are many cultural values that affect the prominent styles, structures, and forms of sport. It is evident that sport cannot be separated from political, economic, and social realms of society. Depending on the structure and level of sport, participants and spectators can benefit from its values that are generally conceived as inherent traits, such as fair and competitive play, which are beneficial for one’s overall health.

This series of articles has endeavoured to illustrate why it is important for professional managers in soccer to develop an understanding of cultural and ethnic differences in sport participation. The development of skills for effective communication with people from a range of different cultural groups can be seen as core skills for managers.

There is still too little research (especially participant observation accounts) from the perspective of players who are members of non-dominant ethnic groups.

Research from these perspectives is needed to understand the experiences of such players. There is also a need for detailed case studies of successful or effective management styles in sport organisations that include participants from a range of ethnic groups. By mapping the experience of cultural difference in sport, and by identifying best practice for the management of cultural diversity in sport, sport managers will become more effective. In the process, the academic study of sport management may make a distinctive contribution to the burgeoning literature on the methods and challenges of managing across cultures. 

This series calls for professional soccer manages to adopt a synergistic orientation towards their supervision of athletes towards what may be defined as a more ‘cosmopolitan’ orientation, displaying effective intercultural communication and negotiation skills. This may help to facilitate a worldview that focuses more on listening to the athlete’s concerns and allows the athlete to find his or her own way.  

The incorporation of a multicultural worldview would allow the manager and support team to consider the cultural context of the athlete. A multicultural worldview would therefore encompasses group identity (i.e., cultural consciousness), individual identity (i.e., self-concept), beliefs (e.g., spirituality), values (e.g., family), and language. There is evidently room for elite soccer coaches to examine their own perceptions (and in some cases, misperceptions!) regarding player cultures before attempting to understand or work with individuals from such cultures.

New innovative and reflective manager training courses are clearly required to allow individuals to manage their responsibilities as effectively as possible and facilitate critical interventions. One such initiative in Britain is the training program available to all football managers at Warwick Business School in the UK (certificate in Applied Management) (Russell, 2005). This new qualification is unique in European football and contains training in marketing, media relations, sports psychology, branding, and influencing skills. 

In England, up until the creation of the UEFA professional license in 2002, the main qualification for football management seems to have been being a former player. In Germany, in contrast, aspiring managers have to undergo a mandatory apprenticeship of two years in the lower leagues. The challenge to develop a management education course is to allow prospective candidates to learn effectively from their experience. 

Cognitive skills grow from experience and a course which allows individuals to reflect on their skills will inevitably enhance their effectiveness in a dynamic, diverse and complex activity.

Dr. Ian Lawrence is a Senior Lecturer in Sports Business Management and Marketing at the Leeds Metropolitan University.

[Cross Cultural Communications Series] Good to Talk

This is the fifth part in a series of six articles by Dr Ian Lawrence and is based on the work he did on his paper "The Sport and Cross-Cultural Communication: Applications to and from Professional Soccer in the English Premier League"

I have discussed the importance of intercultural communication, as well as its benefits in cross-cultural situations. Moreover, the human aspect of communication is very significant, and in order to learn about another culture, I would suggest that it is a component that cannot be ignored. 

Communication between players and staff within a club can only improve by starting at the individual level. All communication originates at this individual, and in order to improve understanding at a higher level within the club environment, we must start with individuals, then proceed to sub-units, units, sub-systems, and finally, end with larger systems. 

Again, the most fundamental concept of the system is that there are many parts that make it whole, and each of those parts contributes to the overall success or failure of effective communication at higher levels.

Within professional soccer, social and political stature is very important. Also, responsibility is hierarchical within the system, so soccer managers, for example, are ultimately held responsible for any player related troubles on and off the field of play. These aspects are in direct opposition with the low-context characteristics of wider English culture. Before acting on their beliefs or cultural norms, managers must take such characteristics into account. 

The Manager / Player Relationship
Although no scientific studies have examined the relationship between association football managers and players, recent research has developed a clearer understanding of important features of successful coach-athlete relationships.   Jowett and colleagues explored the reciprocal nature of such relationships, giving particular emphasis to affective, behavioral and cognitive factors. This research focused on how coaches and athletes influence each other and the interdependency that is evident. 

Initially, Jowett and others highlighted the importance of the three C’s of closeness, commitment and complementarity to coach-athlete relations.

Closeness refers to feelings and perceptions that appear to be a function of interpersonal factors such as liking, trust, and respect. Open channels of communication, voicing of needs, effective problem-solving, acceptance and appreciation characterize closeness. Importantly, such qualities as trust and respect have been associated with successful coaching, while their absence is linked to less harmony and less support.

Commitment appears to reflect oneness of thought between coach and athlete, and is defined as an intention to maintain and optimize relations.  When performances fall below expectations, commitment can guard against retaliation by promoting accommodation, and this is characterized by flexibility when change is necessary.  A lack of commitment has been shown to be linked to criticism, communication breakdown and a lack of common goals.

Complementarity, the third C, reflects a positive working environment where coach and athlete work together to attempt to improve performance.  It has been suggested that complementarily has been found to relate to both high levels of performance and greater satisfaction with the relationship. More recently, a fourth factor has been proposed, co-orientation, which still requires further investigation, but reflects coach and athlete perceptions of how the other perceives them. Extending this research to incorporate manager and player relationships would certainly help to extend knowledge of interpersonal relations within football. 

Dr. Ian Lawrence is a Senior Lecturer in Sports Business Management and Marketing at the Leeds Metropolitan University.

[Cross Cultural Communications Series] Managing Culture, and Ethnicity

This is the fourth part in a series of six articles by Dr Ian Lawrence and is based on the work he did on his paper "The Sport and Cross-Cultural Communication: Applications to and from Professional Soccer in the English Premier League"

There are a number of areas involving ethnic or cultural issues in soccer where managers can play a crucial role in fostering positive outcomes. The policies and practices adopted by managers will often determine whether the longer-term outcomes for their sport code are successful or clouded by controversy or conflict. Some examples are racism and discrimination in sport, initiatives for ethnic and cultural pluralism in sport, recruitment and turnover, and motivation and involvement.

Racism and Discrimination
Racism has been evident towards members of non-dominant ethnic groups in many sport settings around the world. Recent literature and media coverage has highlighted concerns about racism in many sporting codes in the UK. Non-white players have been harassed and discriminated against by white players within the same team, players from opposing teams, and by racist spectators. The relative lack of opportunities for players not of Anglo-Celtic origins has led to the development of teams composed primarily of one or more (non-white) ethnic groups. The formation of these teams is likely to have been, in some cases, a result of the ethnic barriers maintained by white sport managers. 

Soccer codes of conduct have lacked rules and penalties relating to racist abuse by players. Managers on occasions have allowed players perpetrating racist abuse to escape without penalty. Racist abuse, along with bullying and other forms of harassment has undoubtedly prevented many ethnic minorities and other non-white players from entering a number of sporting arenas, or prevented them from being promoted into senior management.

Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings ... A Global Perspective
Cross-cultural communication is one of the most important, yet neglected aspects of intra-organisational relations, and therefore, deserves closer analysis. Contrary to what many assume, an increase in interaction between people of different cultures does not usually expand cross-cultural understanding, but instead, reinforces our awareness of our own culture, which actually heightens the probability that conflict will ensue.

Therefore, managers must recognize the values that they share with people of other cultures in order to understand the values of those cultures that differ from their own. If they cannot relate on an individual level, units cannot connect at higher levels of international systems. Buzan and Little  state that, “interaction is fundamental to any conception of a system. Without interaction, the parts or units are disconnected and free-standing”.

If cultural interaction can have substantial effects on any given formal system it would benefit the system to increase cross-cultural understanding so that this type of interaction does not result in conflict. Transmitting ideas can occur at the individual level, and does not necessarily require the intervention of larger units, such as states. Yet, every individual exists within a larger unit within the system. Therefore, we cannot undermine the significance of improving relations between individuals, as this influences the level of understanding that permeates the entire club. 

To best facilitate cross-cultural communication between various actors within the any system it is clear that person-to-person communication between people of different cultures must be improved before we can ameliorate cultural communication problems between groups both on and off the soccer field. 

In other words, I would argue that this process must first take place at an individual level. I also defend the notion that conflict in general most often begins due to misperceptions of another’s intentions and/or motives. By gaining an understanding of perceptions and perspectives of individuals of cultures other than our own, we decrease the chances of misinterpreting others’ actions, which then reduces the chances of creating conflict.

I would suggest that it is the language of sport that can be shared cross-culturally, and it is those aspects that allow us to understand others’ intentions and motives. While we may not be capable of understanding every spoken language that exists within the current professional soccer club, we can utilize those languages that can be understood by anyone, as they reveal the internal characteristics of a culture. These characteristics can only be revealed through shared cultural experiences, and soccer can provide a channel for cross-cultural communication. 

However when misunderstandings do occur it is necessary to have awareness that another’s motives for initiation of conflict can be the root to managing the conflict. The ‘levels of interpersonal conflict model’ (LICM) recognizes the need to assess the motivation and behaviour of the actors involved at five levels of interpersonal conflict: (1) problems, (2) disagreements, (3) contests, (4) fights, and ultimately, (5) war. 

This model, while not a theory of behaviour, can help answer questions about personality and structural factors that influence change, beneficial approaches to given conflicts that will create a desirable outcome and dynamics reflected by specific interpersonal conflicts, to name a few. This model can be very useful for those people studying international relations (and the microcosm of a professional soccer club), considering the distinct theories that exist, regarding how international relations operate.

The type or structure of the club that employs activities in cultural relations is less important than the actual method used by the club management to generate understanding of others’ perceptual frames of reference

Belief Systems
Understanding another culture involves understanding another’s belief system, and not just another’s spoken language. Research that has addressed the question of the impact of belief systems in international relations, argue that a belief system is like “a set of lenses through which information concerning the physical and social environment is received. It orients the individual to his environment . . . [It also] has the function of the establishment of goals and the ordering of preferences”. 

Therefore, returning to the LICM model, which is based on the theory that understanding the motivation of another’s initiation of conflict is essential for conflict prevention, it is clear why knowledge of others’ belief systems is so important within any multicultural organisation such as a soccer club. In essence, in order to understand one’s intentions, one must understand another’s beliefs. 

The creation of a multi faith prayer room for the players and staff of Bolton Wanderers F.C is evidence of a growing acknowledgement by synergistic managers that an appreciation and sensitivity towards a player’s spiritual orientation may be key in facilitating their development both on and off the field.

One’s beliefs cannot be considered right or wrong, but rather, cultural values inform its

members as to what can be considered as such.  Normative values, or those which express themselves within a culture by prescribing behaviours that members of the culture are expected to perform combined with beliefs, help shape attitudes. It is logical to argue that all three – beliefs, attitudes and values – are formed not only through the direct experiences of an individual, but also through vicarious and shared cultural experiences and perceptions. It is clear, then, that beliefs, attitudes and values are intertwined, and in order to understand one’s motives, we must look to not just one’s attitude, but an entire belief system.

In order to improve understanding between individuals at clubs, managers must pay attention to both verbal, as well as non-verbal forms of interaction.   Hence, it is imperative to understand that the code, context and the meaning are linked to one single occurrence. When spoken words are taken out of context, for example, individuals do not learn what was actually meant by the specific utterance, and the entire meaning is lost. 

While it may very well be impossible to have face to face contact with every individual that staff communicates with, improving their relations at a personal level can help to increase cultural understanding of the groups or units that these individuals represent. While images of a team could never be entirely representative of reality, professional clubs comprised of individuals who have interacted cross-culturally with others will be more likely to develop perceptions or images of others that are closer to reality.

Any aspect of intercultural relations will include language, which can be shared by people of all cultures. Nonetheless, language can be thought of as a form of cultural expression as well. Typically, most teams within the Premiership encourage their non-English speaking players to enrol on intensive language courses at the first opportunity. 

While language can be shared, it cannot fully express one’s thoughts, nor can it be considered a universal medium. Rather, language is part of a particular culture that can be learned and also shared by people of various cultural backgrounds. The ability to share language, however, does not negate the need to understand the internal culture of those individuals who communicate with one another.

It is important to understand that while speaking the language of the individuals with whom managers communicate can facilitate the exchange of symbols, it does not necessarily facilitate the exchange of meaning. Individuals, then, may use language to convey their thoughts, but can never escape the notion, as coined by McLuhan in 1964, that “the medium is the message.” In other words, the spoken message rarely reflects what one entirely means, and therefore, intercultural communication consists of more than sending and receiving spoken messages between two people of different cultures. 

Moreover the exchange of persons adds significant value to intercultural relations. We cannot ignore the silent languages of cultures, because it is this language that reveals the internal characteristics of a culture.

In today’s modern society, it can be difficult to recognize the importance face-to- face communication, as technology provides a plethora of communication channels that allow for the exchange of words. English culture especially has developed many low-context forms of communication. 

In other words, English culture utilizes low-context systems out of necessity, as it is more conducive to fast and efficient transfer of information. When large volumes of information must be transferred, it is difficult to use high-context communication because the coded, transmitted part of the message contains a very small part of the actual information. 

The problem with low- context communication, however, is its reliance on the explicit code. In intercultural communication, the receiver of messages does not always hear what the sender intended to say. With email or telephone conversation, for example, while it is possible to interpret a message based on the tone or style of writing, the lack of face-to-face contact prevents the two communicators from seeing the physical context, which may entail valuable information. 

Dr. Ian Lawrence is a Senior Lecturer in Sports Business Management and Marketing at the Leeds Metropolitan University.

[Cross Cultural Communication Series] Training the Trainers

This is the third part in a series of six articles by Dr Ian Lawrence and is based on the work he did on his paper "The Sport and Cross-Cultural Communication: Applications to and from Professional Soccer in the English Premier League"

The theoretical components of national (FA) and international (FIFA) training courses provide managers with ways of applying their practical knowledge. Practical knowledge—the basis of our ability to perform successfully as participants in a social practice, is largely tacit and unconscious.  The reality however is that no amount of classroom experience could more than scratch the surface of the complex habits, skills, background information, and situational awareness that even a simple conversation requires, much of which cannot be articulated verbally. 

Practical knowledge is rather simplistically assumed by some theorists to be promoted only via the accumulation of direct experience. If this is indeed true, this would present a steep learning curve for the manager expected to work within a dynamic multicultural setting. Human experience is evidently organised through a multiplicity of ontologies and is bound to produce different interpretations of reality. It is not so much the experience of sport per se but the meaning we attach to this experience that helps us understand cultural differences. 

It appears that many managers, either implicitly or explicitly, are influenced by early role models and mentors as they feel their way into new positions, as such models provide “an initial road map into an uncertain future” (Kekale, 1998). 

Many ‘experts’ evidently are highly influenced by their own experience as players and managers who not only teach them the technical, tactical and physical skills but also shared philosophies, beliefs and values about coaching and dealing with people. 

This process is arguably a form of ‘organisational socialisation’ whereby trainee coaches, in addition to learning the technical aspects of the position, are inculcated with shared understandings regarding the ideology and critical aspects of the occupation. 

In order to illustrate the ways in which interpersonal communication may vary across cultures, two specific dimensions of interpersonal communication are outlined. These dimensions, which have been linked to the contexts of cultural differences in England and abroad, are: inclusion versus exclusion and egalitarianism versus respect.

Inclusion versus Exclusion
Inclusion is a style of social behaviour that emphasises a sense of belonging, membership or solidarity among people by incorporating them into a group. Acts of inclusion comprise behaviours such as greetings, welcomes, and invitations to join an activity. Group boundaries are generally flexible and loosely defined.

Exclusion is a style of social behaviour encompassing solitary activities or a one-to-one intensive interaction or relationship between two people. Exclusive patterns involve ignoring or rejecting other people. Often the ‘suitability’ of someone who might join a group must be assessed.

In sports settings, inclusion is evident when new participants are welcomed into a team or game; ensuring newcomers are introduced to others, extending personal invitations to attend social events. In contrast, exclusive styles are evident when newcomers are not acknowledged or welcomed when they attend events, when they find it hard to meet existing participants, and when they are left out of the information networks which are used to announce informal social events.

Attracting and retaining participants in sport settings will be facilitated if emphasis is given to inclusive social behaviours that make newcomers feel welcome. Newcomers from cultures that emphasise inclusiveness may interpret a lack of inclusion behaviours as distinctly unfriendly, and may consequently feel that they are unwelcome. This has been responded to by a variety of Premiership teams in recent times with a dedicated staff of ‘human resources’ whose responsibility is to integrate new players and families into their new culture.

Egalitarianism versus Respect
Thomas and Thomas (1994) outlined some of the key features related to the dimension of egalitarianism versus respect. Egalitarianism is a style of social interaction where the communication patterns of participants have two characteristics. First, they tend to reduce the use of, or ignore, status markers during the interaction. Second, they tend to reflect informality and resistance to the use of status markers when participants have become familiar with each other.

Respect is a style of social interaction where status differences among participants are acknowledged during communication. This can occur through the use of clear status markers (such as players using titles such as ‘boss’ or the ‘guv/governor’ when referring to the manager of the team). It may extend to the use of the status markers even when the participants are very familiar with one another.

It is common for people in Britain to emphasise egalitarian styles of social interaction. In this style, differences in social status are downplayed or ignored. An example of the egalitarian style is suspicion or criticism of those who strive for achievement or who are different from the egalitarian ‘gatekeepers.’, criticism of those who are seen to be high achievers is referred to as the ‘tall poppy syndrome’. 

‘Tall poppies’ are those who stand out too much above the others and need to be cut down to size. This pattern is most likely to be initiated by people whose status or power is equal to or lower than the person addressed. The most appropriate rejoinder (to maintain the face of both parties) is to give an insult which belittles the person initiating the insult in a humorous manner. Taking insulting greetings seriously (e.g., responding to the insult with other than good humour) is seen as setting oneself apart from the egalitarian ethos of the group and may lead to that player feeling ostracised by their team mates. 

In a soccer context, egalitarianism might be shown by expecting first names or nick names to be used by junior players to senior players. In egalitarian styles, players expect equal treatment, regardless of length of time as a team member or level of expertise. In contrast, respect communication styles might involve behaviours that acknowledge the skills of more experienced players and those who have been members longer. 

Additionally, respect styles are likely to include some recognition of the responsibilities and status of club managers and coaches. Participants from cultures that use ‘respect’ styles may be uncomfortable in settings where egalitarian behaviours and rituals (e.g., using ‘humorous’ insults) are expected or emphasised. 

Not participating may be interpreted as unfriendly or as a lack of solidarity by people immersed in egalitarian styles as a ‘normal’ part of interpersonal communication. In situations of this kind, sport managers can help ease the transition into sport settings for participants from cultural backgrounds where respect styles of interpersonal communication are expected.

Culture evidently presents a complex challenge for the soccer manager. It requires recognition that each player has an intertwined system of values, attitudes, beliefs and norms that give meaning and significance to both individual and collective identity. This requires ‘indwelling’ and tacit knowledge for understanding and absorbing, and consequently there may be many aspects that escape the notice of an outsider. 

Soccer culture can be understood by the manager as a pattern of ‘taken for granted’ assumptions about how a given collection of people should think, act, and feel as they go about their daily affairs. Every soccer team has a defined culture or system encapsulated by its manager and underpinned by its own internal coherence, integrity and logic, which differentiate it from another culture and which may not make sense to those who are not members of the same club. For a newly arrived player this can be defined as ‘culture shock’ and by virtue of this experience necessitate fundamental changes to their value system. It is theoretically the manager’s insider’s knowledge of the experience of living within a group that facilitates and develops the shared cultural perspectives and communicative codes. 

Dr. Ian Lawrence is a Senior Lecturer in Sports Business Management and Marketing at the Leeds Metropolitan University.

[Cross Cultural Communication Series] The Art of Management

This is the second part in a series of six articles by Dr Ian Lawrence and is based on the work he did on his paper "The Sport and Cross-Cultural Communication: Applications to and from Professional Soccer in the English Premier League"

Over the last two decades, male athletic and non-athletic cultures and subcultures have received some attention in, especially, pro-feminist academia. However, despite the global popularity of the game, the culture and subculture of football and the reproduction of dominant masculinities has largely been taken for granted.

The newly emerging societies within professiona

l soccer clubs tend to be multi-ethnic and multicultural, necessitating subsequent changes in the organization and management of their clubs. Sport migrants in general have to perform in various locations and cope with a broad spectrum of cultural settings.

As a group, they could be a subject of exploitation, dislocation and cultural adjustment. Even so, popular, wealthy and admired players, do not have complete control over their professional life (and in consequence over their personal life, too). They could be ‘sold’ from team to team even without their explicit approval. The new manager is then faced with incorporating a player into their club who may in some case be experiencing a form of ‘culture shock’.

The most successful managers in English professional soccer, and the ones with the greatest longevity, appear to be those who have perfected the art of communication amongst their players and staff. It would be simplistic to assume that because all cultures share the same communication practices.

It is not a foregone conclusion that every culture has a normative concept of communication.  Therefore the norms and practices of English culture are not necessarily appreciated by a generation of foreign players. The dynamics of how both parties from different cultures interpret one another’s communication messages is potentially a key ethnographic variable.

Within each of the ‘management disciplines’ there is a significant literature which assumes that each nation has a distinctive, influential, and describable ‘culture’.  As Hickson and Pugh declare: “it shapes everything” (1995).

Sport management has been defined, among others, as a profession and an area of study, process and coordination.  Our view is that professional soccer management is a social process involving a series of events in context.

The title of ‘manager’ in English professional soccer is distinct from that of coach and is closer to that of the responsibilities held by a Head Coach or Athletic Director in the United States. The process of managing people whether in sport or business is undoubtedly a complex task and requires a sympathetic appreciation of the multi-dimensional roles required.

Traditionally, a coach had a prescribed number of roles, which typically included a planned, coordinated and integrated program of athlete preparation.  In contrast, the modern soccer manager must acknowledge the importance of his role from a business or financial perspective.
   
While some theorists have attempted to distinguish the difference between a manager and a leader by emphasizing the organizational role of the manager and the vision and direction provided by leaders, the role of the soccer manager clearly encompasses elements of both: whilst management implies leadership, leaders need not necessarily be managers.

Intercultural misunderstandings within soccer may occur where individual players from different countries come into contact and form new dynamic multi-ethnic communities. Intercultural factors, therefore, create the potential for numerous communication problems and intercultural conflict. Communication, both verbal as well as non-verbal, is critically important in cross-cultural competence. As language and culture are inextricably bound, cross-cultural communication is complex and potentially problematic.

The American Experience
In the United States, Major League Baseball has had to address management failures arising as a consequence of poor ethnic relations in the sport’s administration. There is a body of work in sport studies that has explored between culture and sport. The findings clearly indicate the importance of cultural considerations when managing sport. This is due, in part, to sport’s distinctive capacity to symbolise national, cultural, sub cultural, and ethnic identities.

Further, sport performances are often interpreted by those who watch or who participate in ways that dramatise ongoing cultural issues. Consequently, sport is capable of enhancing or worsening intercultural relations – the effect depending on the ways that sport programs are designed, marketed, and managed.

Cultural Differences in Interpersonal Communication
When asked about how foreign players settled into Liverpool F.C., then manager Gerard Houllier replied; “the players country is Liverpool Football Club and their language is football”.

This romantic idea ignores the reality that individuals (both players and managers), their families and the clubs suffer from inadequate cultural integration. Both Hernan Crespo and Andre Schevchenho allegedly felt the impact of ‘culture shock’ as high profile players at Chelsea FC.  Crespo left Chelsea due to the inability to settle after finding mundane everyday activities difficult because of language and cultural barriers.

Speaking of his time at Chelsea he stated “it was a problem for me to sign a contract for a house. It was even a problem trying to use my phone because I couldn’t explain what I wanted. If the electricity bill came, it was a problem as well. Those things would occupy my mind every day. There was nobody to help me. There was no one to tell me whether to live near Chelsea or the training ground. And when you change your country, don’t speak the language and you feel alone, it’s the worst thing”

He was not alone. For every player such as the French international Thierry Henry, who settled at Arsenal with great success, there have been high profile relative failures such as  Colombian Juan Pablo Angel.  Soon after Angel joined Aston Villa FC his wife fell ill leaving him shocked at the lack of support he received from the club management.   Angel also grew long hair - but not by choice - he didn’t know how to ask to get it cut. Finally, Welshman Ian Rush’s infamous description of his short-term career in Italy, “It was like playing in a foreign country”.

Such instances clearly highlight how players can be equally ill-equipped for the change in lifestyle and culture that playing in a foreign culture entails.

Dr. Ian Lawrence is a Senior Lecturer in Sports Business Management and Marketing at the Leeds Metropolitan University.

[Cross Cultural Communication Series] The Globalisation of the Premier League

This is the first part in a series of six articles by Dr Ian Lawrence and is based on the work he did on his paper "The Sport and Cross-Cultural Communication: Applications to and from Professional Soccer in the English Premier League"

The English Premiership League has become arguably the most cosmopolitan sporting organisation on earth in the last decade due to the influx of foreign players into the professional division. Having exported soccer to the world in the nineteenth century, England then spent more than 100 years being institutionally opposed to foreign players. Historically this scenario dates from the ban imposed upon foreign players by the English Football Association (F.A) between 1931 and 1978. The philosophy that motivated the ban was arguably an underlying ethnocentric belief being that foreign players were inferior to those of British origin. 

The ban was eventually lifted when the European Community forced the FA to appeal its legislation as unlawful. Yet it was not until the landmark ‘Bosman’ ruling in 1995 by the European Court of Justice that overseas markets become the primary source of talent for domestic English and other European professional clubs. 

The implications for this piece are that in theory, an English Premiership game could be played by eleven French and eleven German nationals.  The cultural shift in the traditional composition of teams that emerged from the structural changes to the professional game was possibly best demonstrated in England by Arsenal F.C on February 14, 2005 when they named the first all-foreign match squad in  English Premiership history. 

The intense globalization experienced by soccer and its business environment has an endless number of possible outcomes. A mischievous look into the future may reveal a scenario where assistant referees have to check notarized passports instead of the soles of the shoes of substitute players. 

The resulting diversified workforce brings a variety of perspectives and approaches to work that can challenge the pre-existing culture in place. Professional teams that wish to compete fully in the marketplace for players inevitably have to consider recruiting and retaining what is a highly diverse workforce. Diversity in this context may manifest itself in a variety of ways to managers. This may include the presence of many religions, languages, cultural norms and expectations. 

Managing a Culturally Diverse Team
Managing a culturally diverse team, as in any workforce context is a complex issue. Therefore, a team manager who can demonstrate skills and experience in a cross-cultural setting is potentially in demand in today’s dynamic soccer market.  Therefore the nationality of the team manager no longer appears to be an issue as long as they can produce the necessary results.

The degree to which a manager offers ‘human capital’ to a team (the level of previous success and experience) may be crucial in determining which managers are appointed by clubs to new positions, but this might not always be the best selection procedure if managers have a dominant style that is incongruent with players’ preferences and situational factors. It appears that effective management behaviour necessarily varies across specific contexts as the characteristics of the players and the environment change. 

The ability of the club to recognise that culture diversity can be synergistic is significant if they are to optimise the strengths of their playing staff. Such clubs create new forms of management and organisation that transcend the individual cultures of their members. 

In 2000, researchers Martens, Mobley and Zizzi advocated for increasing the knowledge of cultural groups among consultants who work with players from multicultural backgrounds. Arguably this concern is likely to become an increasingly sensitive topic with the number of foreign players working in the EPL showing no evidence of decreasing. 

Researchers have consistently acknowledged a lack of understanding on the behalf of those individuals charged with optimising the talents of their players. This is acutely demonstrated in sport psychology, an area in which soccer managers are expected to demonstrate high levels of knowledge and application.

In many professional soccer settings it is likely that managers do not share the culture of their players and may have what could be described as a parochial or ethnocentric approach towards their work with the team. In the context of this series of articles, misunderstandings based on cultural differences in interpersonal communication are likely to affect exchanges between managers (other support staff) and their players. 

Dr. Ian Lawrence is a Senior Lecturer in Sports Business Management and Marketing at the Leeds Metropolitan University.